Researchers have confirmed that the most extreme rogue wave ever officially recorded struck off the coast of Ucluelet, British Columbia, in November 2020. The wave, which measured about 58 feet tall, was approximately three times the height of the waves surrounding it at the time of measurement. A buoy operated by Marine Labs captured the data, and scientists at the University of Victoria later confirmed that the reading was accurate and not the result of a technical error.

Rogue waves are defined as waves that are more than twice the height of the waves around them. They can form quickly during storms or appear in relatively calm water. Their steep sides and deep troughs make them hazardous to ships, and they have been linked to maritime incidents over the years.

For centuries, reports of giant waves were met with skepticism. In 1826, a French naval officer described waves over 98 feet tall during a storm in the Indian Ocean, but scientists at the time doubted that waves could exceed 30 feet. It was not until 1995 that the scientific community officially recognized rogue waves as a real phenomenon. That year, a wave about 84 feet tall struck the Draupner gas platform in the North Sea. The platform was designed to withstand waves up to 64 feet, and the event confirmed that such waves were not just sailors’ tales.

Since then, researchers have developed two main explanations for how rogue waves form. The linear addition theory suggests that waves traveling at different speeds can cross paths and combine their energy. The nonlinear focusing theory proposes that waves traveling in groups can exchange energy, with some waves growing disproportionately large.

In recent years, scientists have gained a clearer understanding of the conditions that produce rogue waves. A study involving an expedition to Antarctica found that strong winds over young waves can cause some waves to absorb energy from nearby waves and grow much larger. The researchers observed rogue waves approximately once every six hours in these conditions, and they found no rogue waves in calmer seas. The study suggested that as the atmosphere and ocean gain more energy, rogue waves may become more frequent.

Rogue waves are distinct from tsunamis. Tsunamis are caused by displacement of the entire water column, often from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Rogue waves, by contrast, form at the surface due to wind and wave interactions. There are also internal rogue waves, which form deep below the surface.

In 2018, researchers recreated the Draupner wave in a laboratory for the first time. The experiment showed that waves approaching from different directions can push water upward and create what is known as a crosswave. These waves can continue growing even after breaking, making them significantly steeper than ordinary waves. The findings could influence how offshore structures such as wind turbines and oil platforms are designed.

In a separate area of seismic research, scientists have been studying the Tintina Fault, which runs beneath Dawson City in Canada’s Yukon territory. The fault was long thought to be inactive, but recent studies suggest it may be capable of producing a magnitude 7.5 earthquake. The ground on each side of the fault has accumulated roughly 20 feet of strain. Researchers have found evidence of past earthquakes, including one that likely occurred near the end of the last ice age. The Tintina Fault is not currently listed on Canada’s official seismic hazard map, and researchers are calling for it to be added so that building codes and safety plans can account for the risk.

Elsewhere, scientists have been studying the North Anatolian Fault beneath the Sea of Marmara near Istanbul. Using electromagnetic imaging, researchers from the Institute of Science Tokyo created a 3D map of the fault and identified zones where stress has been building. Historical records suggest that large earthquakes in the region occur roughly every 250 years, and the last major one was in 1766. Turkey has been upgrading its earthquake early warning system, which can detect the first seismic waves and send alerts within seconds.

In the Pacific Northwest, researchers have been studying the Seattle Fault Zone, which runs beneath the Seattle area. The fault produced a magnitude 7.5 earthquake in the year 923, which lifted the seafloor, collapsed shorelines, and triggered a tsunami. Recent studies using marine terraces and trenching have found that large earthquakes of that size are extremely rare, occurring perhaps every 5,000 years or more. However, smaller earthquakes on side faults occur more frequently, roughly every 350 years over the last 2,500 years. These smaller events can still cause significant damage in a modern city.

The Cascadia Subduction Zone, which stretches from Northern California to Vancouver Island, remains one of the most closely monitored fault systems in North America. It has produced major earthquakes roughly every 500 years on average, and the last one occurred in 1700. That earthquake generated a tsunami that reached Japan, where it was recorded as an orphan wave with no local earthquake to explain it. Scientists estimate there is a 10 to 15 percent chance of a magnitude 9 earthquake in the next 50 years. Such an event could cause severe damage across the region, with strong shaking lasting several minutes and a tsunami arriving along parts of the coast within 15 to 30 minutes.

Scientists have also examined whether the Cascadia Subduction Zone and the San Andreas Fault can trigger each other. Marine sediment cores suggest that paired earthquakes have occurred at least ten times in the last 3,100 years. The junction where the two fault systems meet, known as the Mendocino Triple Junction, appears to transmit stress changes from one fault to the other. If one fault ruptures, the other could follow, potentially leading to back-to-back major earthquakes affecting California, Oregon, and Washington.

The 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan, which struck on January 17th, remains a reference point for how a major earthquake can disrupt a modern economy. The magnitude 7.3 quake killed more than 5,000 people and caused an estimated $200 billion in damage. It led Japan to overhaul its building codes and disaster management systems. The country now has an earthquake early warning system that can send alerts to phones within seconds of the first seismic waves.

In the U.S. Midwest, geologists have studied the Midcontinent Rift, a 1.1 billion-year-old geological feature that runs from Kansas to Lake Superior. The rift, sometimes called Broken Heart, was formed when tectonic plates began to separate. It filled with magma and eventually became a stable part of the continent. The rift contains large deposits of basalt and copper, and some scientists believe it also holds significant reserves of natural hydrogen, which could be used as a clean energy source. The rift is one of several places worldwide where hydrogen accumulates naturally in the ground.

In early 2025, a seismic swarm near the Greek island of Santorini raised concerns among residents and scientists. Over the course of a few months, thousands of small earthquakes were recorded, with the largest reaching magnitude 5.3. Greek authorities declared a state of emergency and evacuated thousands of people. The quakes were not volcanic but occurred along fault lines near the underwater Kolumbo volcano. Machine learning analysis helped scientists map the activity and identify the most active areas. The swarm eventually subsided, but researchers continue to study the data to understand how such events develop.

Japan issues its first-ever megaquake advisory in 2024 after a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck off the coast of Kyushu. The quake was connected to the Nankai Trough, an underwater fault where the Philippine Sea Plate slides beneath the Eurasian Plate. Scientists estimate an approximately 80 percent probability of a magnitude 8 to 9 earthquake in the region within the coming decades. The advisory was lifted after a week, but officials recommend that residents along the coast prepare for the possibility of a future event. Japan has invested heavily in earthquake-resistant construction and early warning systems.

In a separate study of earthquake mechanics, researchers used plexiglass sheets to observe how cracks form and spread. They found that earthquakes may begin with a slow, silent crack that moves without producing shaking. This so-called aseismic stage can continue until the crack grows large enough to speed up, at which point it becomes a fast-moving rupture. The findings suggest that detecting this early stage may one day help scientists issue earlier warnings.

NASA satellites are used to monitor ground movement after earthquakes, detecting shifts in the land surface and changes in nighttime lights that may indicate power outages.

There are several misconceptions about earthquakes. The ground does not open into large chasms during an earthquake; instead, the land on either side of a fault slides past each other. California is also not at risk of falling into the ocean, as southwestern California is gradually moving northward along the San Andreas Fault at a rate of about two inches per year.

The largest earthquake ever recorded was a magnitude 9.5 event in Chile in 1960. It lasted several minutes, triggered a tsunami that affected coastal areas across the Pacific, and caused significant destruction. The most powerful earthquake recorded in the United States was a magnitude 9.2 event in Alaska in 1964, which also generated tsunamis and caused extensive damage.

Earthquakes can be triggered by tectonic plate movement, volcanic activity, or meteor impacts, but most are caused by the slow accumulation and release of stress along faults. The moment magnitude scale is commonly used to measure earthquake size, replacing the older Richter scale in most contexts. A magnitude 15 earthquake is considered impossible because the Earth’s crust does not contain enough energy to produce one.

The moon also experiences seismic activity. There are four types of moonquakes, including deep moonquakes, meteoroid impacts, thermal quakes, and shallow moonquakes. The shallow variety is the most powerful and can last up to ten minutes. Seismic activity has also been detected on Mercury, Venus, Mars, and several moons in the outer solar system.

Deep beneath the ocean, unusual acoustic phenomena have been documented. A low-frequency hum has been recorded in the twilight zone of the ocean, where sunlight does not reach. Researchers believe the sound may be linked to the daily vertical migration of small marine creatures such as fish, shrimp, and squid, which move toward the surface at night to feed and return to the depths during the day.

The Earth itself is in constant motion, producing a steady, low-level vibration known as free oscillation. This hum is too faint for people to feel but can be detected with sensitive instruments. Scientists confirmed that ocean waves and colliding wave patterns contribute to this phenomenon.

Other ocean sounds remain only partially understood. A loud low-frequency sound recorded in 1997, known as the Bloop, was later attributed to iceberg calving in Antarctica. Other recorded sounds, such as Julia, Train, and Upsweep, have been linked to icebergs scraping the seafloor or continue to have unexplained origins.

The Axial Seamount, an underwater volcano about 300 miles off the Oregon coast, is one of the most closely monitored volcanoes on Earth. Scientists have installed hundreds of miles of fiber optic cable and a network of sensors on the seafloor around it. The volcano erupts roughly every decade, and researchers predicted a possible eruption in 2025 based on ground swelling and earthquake activity. That forecast was later revised to mid-to-late 2026. The volcano has not yet erupted, and scientists continue to monitor it. An eruption at Axial is expected to be relatively calm and is unlikely to produce a tsunami.

In Canada, a river known as the Ikamesh flows in both directions between the Hayes and Nelson Rivers, a result of the nearly flat terrain it passes through. Similar bifurcations exist elsewhere, including the Casiquiare canal in South America, which connects the Orinoco and Amazon river systems, and North Two Ocean Creek in Wyoming, which splits into streams that eventually reach both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. These unusual waterways are rare but occur naturally in several parts of the world.