In 2008, diamond miners working near Oranjemund on the coast of Namibia discovered a shipwreck that had been buried under desert sand for almost 500 years. The vessel, believed to be the Portuguese trading ship Bom Jesus, disappeared in the 16th century while traveling from Lisbon to India. The miners initially found unusual objects, including copper ingots, wood, and elephant tusks, and called in archaeologists, who identified the site as a shipwreck.

The Bom Jesus was a large trading vessel built in 1533. It set sail in March of that year with roughly 300 people on board, but never reached its destination. Researchers believe a storm pushed the ship toward the shore near Namibia, where it struck a rock, broke apart, and sank. The wreck was preserved by thick layers of sand, which prevented rot and kept much of the cargo intact. More than 40 tons of cargo were recovered, including cannons, swords, fabrics, navigation tools, and over 2,000 gold and silver coins. The most significant finds were 1,845 copper ingots and 105 elephant tusks weighing about two tons. The copper ingots carry trade marks from a German trading company, and DNA analysis of the tusks showed they came from West African forest and savanna elephants.

The site was protected by its location within a restricted diamond mining area, which kept scavengers away. All coins recovered were handed over to the Namibian government. Although the ship was likely a Portuguese state vessel, Portuguese authorities allowed Namibia to keep the treasure. Few human remains were found, suggesting that most of the crew may have survived the wreck, though they would have faced a harsh environment with little chance of rescue.

Other shipwrecks have been discovered in similar circumstances. A merchant ship from the 18th or 19th century was found buried under a sand dune near the Caspian Sea. Researchers built a wall of sandbags to protect it from waves before excavating the three-masted, 92-foot vessel. Wood samples showed it was built from trees from the Volga River area or the Caucasus. The ship carried buckwheat and other plants from the same region, indicating it was part of a merchant fleet operating on the Caspian Sea.

An amateur fisherman off the coast of Turkey found what is believed to be an early 20th-century shipwreck, possibly from the Ottoman Empire, using an underwater camera. The ship may have been on a supply mission when it disappeared. Scientists are studying the wreck, though its condition makes research difficult.

In the Eastern Mediterranean, robot submersibles from an oil and gas company found hundreds of intact storage jars on the seabed. Experts believe the jars are around 3,300 years old, making the site the oldest known deep-sea shipwreck. The jars were likely used to store oil or agricultural products, and their presence suggests ancient mariners used the sun and stars to navigate across open water without sight of land.

Off the coast of Sicily, archaeologists found a shipwreck believed to be over 2,500 years old. The vessel, built using the on-shell technique with tightly connected planks, was discovered under 20 feet of sand and rock. Nearby, researchers found iron anchors from around the 7th century and stone anchors from prehistoric times. The ship is fragile because sea creatures have damaged its wooden hull, and scientists are studying it carefully to learn more about ancient trade in the region.

In 2013, local fishermen off the coast of Kenya discovered a shipwreck that may be linked to Vasco da Gama’s final voyage. The Portuguese explorer led a fleet of 20 ships to India in the early 16th century, and one of them, the São Jorge, was lost. Underwater archaeologists found elephant tusks and copper ingots at the site, and a team is carefully digging through layers of coral to reach the ship’s wooden frame and hull.

The Sahara Desert has also yielded surprising discoveries. Although it is now one of the driest places on Earth, thousands of years ago the region was grassland with lakes, rivers, and forests. Rock paintings in the area depict animals like giraffes and hippos, confirming that the landscape was once much wetter. The change began around 20,000 years ago when the Earth’s tilt shifted, affecting monsoon activity and rainfall patterns. Over time, the vegetation disappeared, and wind carried away the fine sediment, leaving the barren landscape visible today.

Beneath the sand, researchers have found petrified tree trunks, fossilized pine cones, and even glass fragments dating back 29 million years. The glass is believed to have formed when a meteorite hit the Earth’s surface. Shark teeth are common in parts of the Sahara, remnants of a sea that once cut through the region. Roman ruins also lie under the sand. The city of Timgad, built by Emperor Trajan around the year 100, was abandoned around the year 700 and later engulfed by the desert. A Scottish explorer began excavating it in the 18th century, revealing a triumphal arch, an amphitheater, and statues of Roman emperors. The site, which covers an area the size of ten polo fields, was fully excavated in the 1950s.

The Sahara continues to expand. It is now about 10% larger than it was a century ago, partly due to natural climate cycles and partly because of human activity. Overgrazing and intensive farming in the Sahel region have weakened the soil, contributing to desertification. African countries have launched the Great Green Wall project, which aims to plant a wall of trees across the continent to hold back the desert. The Sahara and the Sahel have long been connected by trade routes used by camel caravans since antiquity, and evidence of these ancient journeys is still being found under the sands.

Ancient Egyptian history has also been shaped by desert discoveries. In Abydos, archaeologists found 14 wooden boats buried in mud-brick vaults around 5,000 years ago. The vessels, which could hold up to 30 rowers each, were built from planks tied together, a major innovation in shipbuilding. They were likely placed there by a pharaoh for ceremonial reasons. The boats predate the pyramids at Giza and are the oldest known fleet in human history. Some scientists believe the vessels were part of a procession that carried the pharaoh’s body to his tomb. Boats held symbolic meaning in ancient Egyptian religion, as the sun god Ra was believed to travel through the sky in a solar boat, and pharaohs wanted boats for their journey to the afterlife.

In 2020, archaeologists working near Luxor found a city called Aten, which they described as one of the most important discoveries since King Tut’s tomb. The site, about 300 miles south of Cairo, includes a bakery, a residential neighborhood, and an administrative district. It dates to a period when the Egyptian civilization was at its wealthiest. Other finds include iron beads made from a meteorite, dating back over 5,000 years, and a drawing in an ancient tomb that resembles a modern cartoon character. Archaeologists also found a necklace with amethyst and agate beads, copper mirrors, and the oldest known saddle, made from leather stuffed with straw and animal hair, in a woman’s grave near the Taklamakan Desert in China.

The Great Pyramid of Giza has also drawn new interest. Researchers investigating its electromagnetic response to radio waves found that the structure concentrates electromagnetic energy inside its chambers and under its base. The finding may have practical applications for solar cells and nano sensors.

Scientific research has also helped identify other archaeological finds. The world’s oldest known mummies were made by the Chinchorro people in South America, thousands of years before the Egyptians developed their own mummification practices. Mummy portraits found in central Egypt, painted while the subjects were alive, have provided insight into the appearance of ancient Egyptians. The discovery of mummies and their belongings has also revealed details about art, religion, and daily life in ancient times.

The Step Pyramid of Djoser, built about 4,700 years ago in Saqqara, was the first pyramid constructed in Egypt. It rises about 200 feet and was built for pharaoh Djoser. Below it lies a network of tunnels stretching roughly 3.5 miles. In 2020, a researcher suggested that a large trench around the pyramid may have been part of a water system used to power a hydraulic lift during construction. The theory proposes that water from the trench could have floated stones up to higher levels, but experts disagree about whether enough water would have been available. The stones used for the pyramid weighed about 660 pounds each, much lighter than the blocks used in later pyramids.

The Great Pyramid of Giza was built for pharaoh Khufu around 2575 BCE. It contains three chambers, including the King’s Chamber, and is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing. Workers who built the pyramid were likely not enslaved people but paid laborers who lived near the site. They were housed, fed, and given medical care. The pyramid was aligned with the points of a compass using the constellations. Its exterior was once polished with sand and stone until it gleamed. The exact method used to raise the stones is still disputed. Remains of a ramp system suggest the Egyptians used ramps, but no single explanation has been confirmed.

The Great Sphinx of Giza, carved from limestone about 4,500 years ago, guards the pyramid complex. It was originally painted and probably had a nose that has since been lost. Hidden entrances at the Sphinx’s feet suggest the existence of tunnels below it. Some legends claim it houses a secret repository of knowledge, but no evidence has been found to support these theories. Archaeologists continue to explore the structure, but active excavation is risky because of the potential damage to the statue.

Other historical mysteries involve shipwrecks. In the 19th century, the SS Central America sank off the coast of the United States in 1857, taking about 10 tons of gold with it. A research team financed by investors recovered the gold in 1988, but disputes over ownership led to lawsuits. The lead researcher, Tommy Thompson, later disappeared with some of the proceeds. In the 1920s, the steamship SS City of Cairo was sunk during wartime, and a salvage company recovered its cargo of silver coins from a depth of 17,000 feet.

In 1865, the clipper ship Fiery Star left Australia loaded with wool, tallow, and hides. A fire broke out in the cargo during the voyage, and the ship burned for several days. Most of the crew and passengers took to lifeboats and were never seen again. Seventeen crew members remained aboard under Chief Officer William Sergeant’s leadership and were eventually rescued by a passing ship called the Dauntless. The captain and most of the others did not survive.

The SS Baychimo, a cargo ship built in 1914, became a ghost ship after it was trapped in ice off the coast of Alaska in 1931. The crew abandoned the vessel, but it remained afloat and was spotted intermittently off the Alaskan coast for decades. The last reported sighting was in 1965. The ship is one of an estimated 4,000 vessels that have disappeared in Alaskan waters. Its fate remains unknown.

The Saqqara Bird, a wooden artifact from ancient Egypt, has been the subject of debate since it was found in 1898. The bird-shaped object has a wingspan of about 7 inches. Some have proposed that it may be a model of a glider or monoplane, though tests of replicas have produced mixed results. It is unclear whether the artifact was a toy, a ceremonial object, or something else.

The Antikythera mechanism, discovered in 1901, is considered the world’s first analog computer. The bronze device, dating to around 100 BCE, could calculate the positions of the sun, moon, and planets, as well as the dates of solar eclipses. No one knows who built it or where it was made, but it is far more advanced than anything else from its time.

Several other ancient technologies have been found to be older than previously assumed. The Minoans on Crete and the Indus Valley civilization both developed flushing toilets around 4,000 years ago. Heron of Alexandria designed hydraulic temple doors in the 1st century CE. A clay jar found in Baghdad in 1938 may be one of the earliest known batteries, and Leonardo da Vinci sketched a contact lens design around 1508.

In the Negev Desert, archaeologists have studied desert kites, massive stone structures used to lure animals. These structures were built between 7,000 and 9,000 years ago and are found across the Middle East and Central Asia. In Saudi Arabia, researchers have identified mustatils, rectangular stone monuments older than the pyramids of Giza, which may have had ritual purposes.

In Algeria, researchers have investigated thousands of circular holes visible on Google Earth near the town of Fogaret ed-Zoua. Scientists initially suspected they were oil-related or ancient irrigation systems. After closer examination, they found the holes were caused by seismic surveying for oil and gas, carried out in the 1950s and 1960s. The teams left behind dynamite and vintage sardine cans, which helped date the activity.

The Jeddars near Tiaret, Algeria, are pyramid-like stone monuments built between the 4th and 7th centuries CE. They contain underground vaults and corridors and are believed to be tombs for local nomads. Researchers have also studied the Singing Sands phenomenon, where sand grains produce sounds as they rub together while moving down slopes. The sound is associated with the size, shape, and moisture content of the sand grains.

Deserts remain difficult to study because of extreme conditions and remote locations, but new technologies are helping archaeologists. Artificial intelligence can identify potential dig sites using satellite imagery that detects structures buried beneath sand or vegetation. LiDAR, which uses laser light to map terrain, has helped locate ancient Maya settlements, Amazonian ruins, and medieval cities along the Silk Road. These methods allow researchers to find new sites without first traveling to them.

In 2024, archaeologists in Jordan found a tomb beneath Petra’s treasury containing at least 12 complete human skeletons and artifacts over 2,000 years old. The discovery provided new information about the Nabataeans, the ancient builders of Petra. In France, researchers found a monument made of three puzzle-like structures, though its purpose remains unclear. In Sicily, archaeologists uncovered a large ancient thermal complex with colorful mosaics. In Turkey, a farmer discovered a mosaic floor from the Roman or Byzantine period, and researchers found a workshop cave in Kageya Cave that may have been used for 24,000 years.

Mummies have also been found outside Egypt. Ötzi, discovered in the Alps in 1991, was initially believed to be a modern mountaineer but was later dated to the Copper Age, about 5,000 years ago. His body was preserved by ice and cold conditions.

The Sahara Desert is not the only desert undergoing change. The Atacama Desert in Chile is expanding toward the capital, Santiago, and has received only a third of its normal rainfall since 2010. The process of desertification is occurring in other parts of the world as well, sometimes accelerated by human activity.

Star dunes, the largest and most complex sand dunes, are found in places such as southeastern Morocco. The dune called Lala Lallia, which stands about 330 feet tall, was found to have formed less than 1,000 years ago, although the sand near its base is around 12,000 to 13,000 years old. The dune was shaped by winds that change direction through the year. Scientists studied it using ground-penetrating radar and sand samples, which showed how the dune grew. The Sahara itself was green during a wet period between roughly 11,000 and 5,000 years ago, before the climate became drier and the desert expanded again. Ancient irrigation systems called foggaras were developed in North Africa to bring underground water to the surface, allowing communities to farm in arid regions.