A rogue wave recorded off the west coast of Canada in 2020 was confirmed as the most extreme of its kind ever officially measured. The wave reached about 58 feet in height, roughly three times the size of the waves around it. It was detected by a buoy near Ucluelet, British Columbia, and caused no injuries or damage. Researchers at the University of Victoria verified the data after the Marine Labs company that operates the buoy flagged the reading. The wave, which struck in November 2020, was later published as the most extreme rogue wave on record.
Rogue waves are defined as waves more than twice the height of surrounding waves. They can appear suddenly in stormy seas or in relatively calm water. Scientists formally acknowledged their existence in 1995 after the Draupner wave struck a Norwegian gas platform in the North Sea. That wave measured 84 feet and was more than twice the size of neighboring waves. Before that, reports of giant waves were treated with skepticism, despite accounts from sailors and ships dating back centuries.
Historical records include an 1826 account from a French naval officer who described waves near 100 feet during a storm in the Indian Ocean. A cargo ship, the MS München, disappeared in 1978 after what investigators concluded was a wave of roughly 65 feet. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration later compiled a list of 50 maritime incidents likely caused by rogue waves.
Rogue waves form when wave energy combines in specific ways. Two main theories explain their creation. The linear addition theory holds that waves crossing paths can merge their energy and grow into a single large wave. The nonlinear focusing theory suggests that waves moving in groups can exchange energy, allowing one wave to draw strength from its neighbors. Recent research from the University of Melbourne, based on an Antarctic expedition, found that strong winds over young waves increase the likelihood of rogue waves. The researchers observed giant waves roughly once every six hours in those conditions, using 3D cameras to map the ocean surface.
Laboratory studies have also shown that waves approaching from different directions can create particularly steep formations. A 2018 experiment recreated the Draupner wave in a lab and found that multidirectional waves can become four times steeper than previously thought possible. This has implications for offshore infrastructure, including wind turbines and oil platforms, which may not currently account for such conditions.
Rogue waves differ from tsunamis. Tsunamis are caused by large-scale shifts in the water column, such as earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. They travel deep and only become tall near shore. Rogue waves form at the surface.
A separate but related area of concern is the Tintina Fault in Canada’s Yukon Territory, near Dawson City. The fault, which runs hundreds of miles toward Alaska, was long believed to be inactive. Recent research suggests it has been accumulating strain for thousands of years. Geologists estimate the land on either side of the fault has built up roughly 20 feet of potential movement. If released at once, that could produce an earthquake of approximately magnitude 7.5.
The Tintina Fault is not currently listed on Canada’s official seismic hazard map. Researchers are working to determine how often the fault has produced major earthquakes in the past and how much stress it currently holds. Canadian officials have not indicated when the fault might be added to the hazard map, but scientists have called for updated assessment.
Turkey faces a related concern beneath the Sea of Marmara. A section of the North Anatolian Fault, which runs beneath the sea near Istanbul, has not produced a major earthquake since 1766. Researchers from the Institute of Science Tokyo used electromagnetic imaging to create the first 3D map of the fault. The map identified locked zones where stress has accumulated. Scientists estimate that major earthquakes in the region occur roughly every 250 years on average, meaning the fault is overdue by that measure.
Turkey’s earthquake early warning system has been upgraded in recent years. In October 2025, the system sent its first alert within 8.4 seconds of a magnitude 5 quake in the Sea of Marmara. The system is designed to trigger automatic safety actions such as slowing trains and shutting gas lines. Additional sensors on the seafloor are planned to extend warning times.
In the Pacific Northwest, the Seattle Fault Zone runs beneath parts of the city and surrounding area. A major earthquake along this fault struck in the year 923, reaching approximately magnitude 7.5 and triggering a tsunami in Puget Sound. New research based on marine terraces suggests that earthquakes of that size are rare, possibly occurring only once every 5,000 years or more. However, smaller faults within the zone appear to produce damaging quakes more frequently, roughly every 350 years over the last 2,500 years. These smaller quakes can still damage buildings and infrastructure. Current seismic hazard models for the region may not fully account for them.
The Cascadia Subduction Zone, which runs 600 miles from Northern California to Vancouver Island, presents a larger threat. The zone has produced at least 30 major earthquakes in the past 14,200 years, including one in 1700 that sent a tsunami across the Pacific to Japan. No comparable earthquake has occurred since. Scientists estimate a 10 to 15 percent chance of a magnitude 9 event in the next 50 years. Such an event would cause severe ground shaking, trigger a powerful tsunami, and affect roughly 15 million people across the region. Emergency planners in the Pacific Northwest have identified evacuation routes and designated staging areas in eastern Washington, which is partly shielded by the Cascade Mountains.
Research has also revealed a possible connection between the Cascadia Subduction Zone and the San Andreas Fault in California. Marine sediment cores show evidence of paired earthquake events occurring close together in time, suggesting that a rupture on one fault may destabilize the other. The region where they connect, the Mendocino Triple Junction, may serve as a link for stress transfer. The 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan offers a case study in how a major urban area recovers from such events. That quake killed more than 5,000 people, damaged nearly 400,000 buildings, and cost an estimated $200 billion. Japan rebuilt Kobe’s infrastructure over several years and overhauled its disaster management systems, including a nationwide early warning network.
Japan continues to prepare for a potential megaquake in the Nankai Trough, an underwater fault zone along its Pacific coast. The Japanese Meteorological Agency issued its first-ever megaquake advisory in August 2025 following a magnitude 7.1 earthquake off Kyushu. The agency later lifted the advisory, but scientists estimate an 80 percent probability of a magnitude 8 to 9 earthquake in the region within the next few decades. Last major events in the area occurred in 1944 and 1946. The country has implemented building codes that require structures to withstand magnitude 7 earthquakes, and newer buildings use seismic isolation pads and dampers to absorb shaking.
Volcanic monitoring has also improved in recent years. Axial Seamount, an underwater volcano about 300 miles off the Oregon coast, has been studied through a network of sensors connected by fiber optic cable. The volcano erupted in 2015, and scientists expected a follow-up eruption around 2025 after observing renewed swelling. The eruption has not occurred, and researchers now estimate it may happen in late 2026. The volcano is considered predictable and non-explosive, with eruptions producing lava flows rather than large blasts. The sensors at the site have survived prior eruptions without major damage.
The region around Santorini, Greece, experienced a significant seismic swarm beginning in January 2025. More than 20,000 earthquakes were recorded in less than a month, with the strongest reaching magnitude 5.3. Greek authorities declared a state of emergency and evacuated some residents and tourists. Researchers used machine learning to map the quakes and found them concentrated along a fault line near the underwater Kolumbo volcano. The swarm subsided after roughly two months. Scientists are studying the data to improve understanding of similar seismic swarms elsewhere.
Research into earthquake mechanics has also examined how earthquakes begin. Laboratory experiments using plexiglass sheets have shown that earthquakes may start with a slow, silent crack that moves through a brittle zone before suddenly accelerating. This initial stage is called a nucleation front. If scientists can detect this stage, it may eventually improve earthquake warning capabilities.
The period also includes sustained volcanic activity elsewhere. Mount Yasur in Vanuatu has been erupting continuously since 1774. Stromboli, near Sicily, has held the Guinness World Record for the longest continuously erupting volcano at more than 2,400 years. In Australia, a coal seam fire at Mount Wingen, known as Burning Mountain, has been smoldering underground for at least 6,000 years. The fire moves through a coal seam at about three feet per year and is unlikely to be extinguished.
Scientists have also recorded earthquakes on the Moon. Apollo instruments detected 28 shallow moonquakes between 1972 and 1977. These quakes occur near the surface and can last up to 10 minutes. The Moon and Mars both show evidence of seismic activity, with NASA’s InSight lander recording weak marsquakes in 2019.
On Earth, a magnitude 15 earthquake would carry enough energy to destroy the planet, but geologists consider such an event impossible. The largest earthquake ever recorded was a magnitude 9.5 event in Chile in 1960. Large earthquakes can slightly alter the length of a day by shifting Earth’s axis, though the change is measured in microseconds.
Some rivers exhibit unusual behavior due to geological conditions. The Iikamesh River in Canada flows in both directions, with water diverting to both the Hayes and Nelson Rivers through a nearly flat swampy area. The Casiquiare Canal in South America connects the Orinoco and Amazon river systems, a rare natural bifurcation. In Wyoming, North Two Ocean Creek splits into two branches, with one flowing to the Pacific and the other to the Atlantic. A similar split occurs at Divide Creek in Canada, which divides at Kicking Horse Pass. Wallis Lake in Saskatchewan sends about 90 percent of its water to the Arctic Ocean and 10 percent to Hudson Bay.
The ocean also produces sounds that researchers are still working to explain. A low-frequency hum recorded in the twilight zone, between 660 and 3,300 feet deep, occurs mainly at dawn and dusk. Scientists believe it may be linked to the daily vertical migration of marine animals as they move between depths to feed. Earth itself produces a constant low-frequency hum, known as free oscillation, driven by ocean waves and atmospheric forces. The 1997 “Bloop” sound, once thought to be biological, was later attributed to ice breaking off Antarctic glaciers.
Japan’s earthquake warning system remains among the most advanced in the world. The country experiences roughly 1,500 noticeable earthquakes each year. Building codes have required earthquake-resistant construction since 1950, with updates in 1981 requiring only minor damage in a magnitude 7 quake. Modern buildings often include thick support columns, rubber base isolators, and dampers that absorb shaking energy. The Tokyo Skytree uses a central pillar system and seismic dampers to withstand strong earthquakes.
For residents of coastal regions, tsunami preparedness focuses on reaching high ground quickly. Authorities recommend dropping, covering, and holding on during shaking, then moving inland or uphill immediately after. A tsunami can arrive in as little as 10 to 30 minutes after a nearby earthquake, before official warnings are issued. The 1960 tsunami in Hawaii demonstrated that the initial wave is not always the largest, and water levels can continue to fluctuate for hours.
