Earth’s magnetic field sometimes produces swirling plasma storms that resemble hurricanes. These space hurricanes form in the ionosphere, the part of the upper atmosphere energized by the sun. Instead of water, they rain electrons, and they appear over polar regions. They also generate cyclone-like auroras that can spin near the North Pole for hours.
Space hurricanes are created differently than ocean hurricanes. They develop when solar wind, a stream of charged particles from the sun, interacts with Earth’s magnetic field in a way that creates a vortex of energy. Researchers first confirmed a space hurricane using 2014 satellite data. That storm had a calm center and multiple spiral arms, with plasma spinning at speeds up to 4,700 miles per hour. Scientists observed it for eight hours before it broke down.
These storms have several distinct features. They produce bright auroras, contain a calm eye, create a circular magnetic field with disturbances, and cause electron rains that contribute to colorful lights. Space hurricanes tend to form during calm space weather, relying on low solar wind and northward-pointing magnetic fields. The plasma spins counterclockwise, similar to northern hemisphere hurricanes.
Space hurricanes can interfere with satellite communications, GPS, radio signals, and radar. The electron rains can heat the atmosphere slightly, increasing drag on satellites and potentially altering their orbits. However, they pose no direct health risk to astronauts and do not cause the same destruction as ocean hurricanes. Studying them can help improve predictions for satellite operations, especially for flights crossing polar regions.
The first discovery was accidental. A team at UCLA noticed unusually strong plasma flows while reviewing satellite data. They identified swirling plasma patterns with a bright auroral spot in the middle. After analyzing over 300 space hurricane events across 11 years, they found these storms appeared most often in the afternoon during summer months. Recent observations have also found parallel storms near the South Pole.
This research may help scientists understand Earth’s space environment and how solar energy affects it. It could also assist in planning space missions and making satellites more reliable. Some researchers believe space hurricanes may have occurred for a long time without being noticed. Understanding them may also help identify similar storms on other planets with magnetic fields.
Meanwhile, one section of Earth’s magnetic shield is weaker than the rest. The South Atlantic Anomaly, located over the Atlantic Ocean, allows charged particle storms to affect satellites in low Earth orbit. The anomaly has been spreading and showing signs of splitting in two. It is caused by shifting flows of liquid iron in Earth’s outer core, which generate electric currents that create the magnetic field. Some magnetic lines bend back toward Earth, weakening the field above them.
The European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has been mapping the anomaly in detail. Its maps show the weak spot changing quickly, visible even over a decade. Satellites that pass through the region experience glitches, sensor corruption, and resets. Hubble, for example, shuts down sensitive instruments when it passes through the anomaly. In 2016, the Japanese X-ray telescope Hitomi failed after a problem that emerged during passage through the anomaly, leading to the loss of the mission.
The anomaly is connected to changes in the liquid iron deep below the surface. When flow patterns shift, weak spots in the magnetic field spread or split. This does not necessarily indicate a pole reversal is imminent. It simply shows that the magnetic field can become uneven as material beneath the surface moves. The anomaly is one local example of that process.
Beyond this local weak spot, the sun itself periodically sends powerful bursts of energy toward Earth. Geomagnetic storms, caused by coronal mass ejections, can disrupt radio signals, GPS accuracy, and in extreme cases, push electric currents into power lines. The March 1989 storm caused a blackout in Quebec that left six million people without power for hours. A storm in May 2024 disrupted satellite signals and forced some airlines to adjust routes.
The sun follows an activity cycle of roughly 11 years. During active phases, it fires more flares and releases more charged particles. The current cycle is busier than the previous one. As reliance on satellites and power grids increases, storm effects are more noticeable than they were in the past.
In December 2022, NASA’s Maven orbiter observed Mars’ magnetosphere and atmosphere expand to about three times their usual size. This occurred because a rare gap formed in the solar wind after faster wind caught up with slower wind, creating an area with missing particles. Mars has a weak magnetic field, and solar wind plays a role in the gradual loss of its atmosphere. The expansion was dramatic and unusual, providing researchers with data about how the red planet reacts to these conditions.
Mars lost most of its atmosphere over time, likely because its weak magnetic field allowed solar wind to strip it away. The planet once had water and possibly a thicker atmosphere. Today, its atmosphere is thin, mostly carbon dioxide, and over 100 times less dense than Earth’s. The Maven mission was designed to study these processes and continues to monitor how solar activity affects the planet.
Scientists also study solar storms that directly affect Earth. In 1859, the Carrington event sent a massive solar flare toward Earth. Telegraph systems failed across Europe and North America, some sparks caused fires, and auroras appeared far from the poles. A similar event today could disrupt satellites, power grids, and communications on a much larger scale, with estimated costs ranging from hundreds of billions to trillions of dollars.
The sun’s activity can also produce visible effects in the sky. In 2022, the sky in South Dakota turned green after a severe thunderstorm. This color change occurs when large storm clouds, water droplets, and hail interact with sunlight near the horizon. Blue and green light waves scatter and reflect off water particles, creating the effect. The green sky is rare, usually appears in the evening, and can signal approaching severe weather.
Scientists have also observed white streaks mixed in with ordinary auroras. These pale glows, captured by a camera network in Canada, differ from normal auroras. They may be caused by continuum emission, a type of light containing a wide range of wavelengths. This suggests a process other than the usual particle collisions. The white emission resembles the light from a phenomenon called Steve, which is a fast-moving stream of plasma that produces a purple glow. Unlike regular auroras, Steve is thought to be created by heat and friction as plasma moves through the atmosphere. The white patches found in auroras share some similarities with Steve but have different shapes and behaviors.
There are also lesser-known aurora variations. Red auroras called SAR arcs form during strong geomagnetic storms and are caused by heat energy from Earth’s ring current system. Black auroras create dark patches within bright lights. These occur when electrons move upward into space instead of downward, leaving holes where no light forms.
The sun is currently in the most active phase of its 11-year cycle, known as solar maximum. This produces more sunspots and increases the chances of solar flares and coronal mass ejections. Northern lights have been visible farther south than usual. The current cycle began in December 2019 and has been relatively weak, but its maximum may last longer than average, providing more opportunities to observe auroras in unexpected regions.
Scientists are also studying earthquake risks beneath the Marmara Sea near Istanbul. New mapping of a fault system under the seafloor shows that large earthquakes may begin at boundaries between weaker and stronger sections of crust. The fault behaves like a row of connected tiles that break in sections rather than one continuous rupture. Computer simulations covering 10,000 years of earthquake cycles found that events would likely not exceed magnitude 7.3. The main fault there has not produced a major rupture since 1894, meaning strain has been accumulating for more than 130 years.
In early 2025, more than 28,000 earthquakes occurred near Santorini, with some reaching magnitude 5. The epicenter shifted gradually toward a submarine volcano, indicating magma was moving. Roughly 80 billion gallons of magma surged upward before stalling below the seafloor. This occurred along the Hellenic Arc, one of Europe’s most active subduction zones. The event showed that magma can move through the crust without reaching the surface, and it demonstrated the value of seismic monitoring networks.
Scientists have also proposed using undersea internet cables as seismic sensors. Fiber optic cables already stretch across the seafloor and can detect vibrations from earthquakes and landslides. This system could provide seconds or minutes of warning in earthquake-prone regions with crowded coastlines.
The sun’s behavior remains a central concern for modern technology. In 2024, thousands of Airbus planes had to be grounded after the company identified a potential problem. High-energy particles from the sun may have corrupted data essential for flight control. The affected planes needed software updates or new computers. A JetBlue flight also experienced a sharp drop midair, possibly related to solar activity, sending about 15 to 20 people to hospitals.
Researchers have also discovered evidence of an extreme solar particle storm that occurred around 12,350 BCE, near the end of the last ice age. By analyzing tree rings, scientists found a spike in radiocarbon dating that suggests this event was the most powerful solar storm ever identified. Modeling indicates it was hundreds of times more intense than a strong solar storm from 2005. The event predates the last 12,000 years of warm climate studied in previous research. A storm of this scale today could threaten satellites, communication systems, and power grids.
Earth’s magnetic shield continues to be studied up close. NASA’s MMS mission has observed sharp twists in Earth’s magnetic field near the boundary where solar wind meets the shield. These switchback shapes result from magnetic reconnection, a process where magnetic fields snap together and release energy. The probes detected fast-moving electrons from Earth’s own field mixed with particles from the sun. Continued observation may help scientists determine which magnetic events are strong enough to disrupt technology on the ground.
Several other extreme natural phenomena remain hypothetical. Hypercanes, for example, are a theoretical type of tropical cyclone that would form when ocean surface temperatures reach about 122 degrees Fahrenheit. They could last for weeks, reach the stratosphere, and potentially damage the ozone layer. No hypercane has ever been observed, and the conditions required for one to form would be extreme, such as an asteroid impact or massive volcanic eruption.
Human activity and natural processes also affect the planet in other ways. The northern hemisphere now reflects less sunlight than it used to, a change observed through NASA satellite data. Lighter surfaces such as ice and snow reflect solar energy, while darker surfaces such as oceans absorb it. As ice melts, darker surfaces are exposed, absorbing more heat and creating a feedback loop. Changes in the balance of reflected versus absorbed sunlight can affect weather patterns. The thermal equator, a zone where winds and rain converge, could shift if one hemisphere continues to gain more energy than the other. Past shifts in this rain belt contributed to the transformation of the Sahara from grassland to desert.
Sinkholes also remain a known geological risk. They form when groundwater dries up, creating empty caverns that later collapse after heavy rain. They appear without warning, as seen in reports of thousands of sinkholes in New York City between 2021 and 2022.
