Five shipwrecks in the Great Lakes continue to present unresolved questions for historians, engineers, and physicists. Estimates from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and maritime heritage researchers suggest that between 6,000 and 10,000 ships have been lost in the five lakes. Because the freshwater at the bottom is near freezing and low in oxygen, many of these wrecks have not deteriorated and remain in the position of their final moments.

The Cornelia B. Windiate was a three-masted schooner built in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, in 1874. The ship was 136 feet long and designed to carry about 16,000 bushels of wheat. On November 27, 1875, it was loaded with 21,000 bushels, well beyond capacity, which was common in the final weeks of the shipping season when cargo prices were highest.

The Windiate left Milwaukee for Buffalo, New York, in extreme cold and high winds. It was not seen again. The wreck was located in 1986 near Alpena, Michigan, in Lake Huron, farther east than anyone had previously believed the ship traveled.

Researchers documented the wreck and found no damage to the hull. The hatches were sealed and thousands of bushels of wheat remained in the hold. There was no evidence of a collision or damage from ice. The leading theory is that ice accumulated on the ship during the storm. In late November, waves crashing over the deck would have coated the rigging, masts, and deck with layers of freezing spray. On a ship already overloaded by 5,000 bushels, the added weight could have raised the center of gravity until the ship became unstable. The Windiate appears to have sunk straight down, slowly enough that the masts, cabin, and lifeboat remained intact. The nine crew members were lost.

The SS Cypress was a 420-foot steel-hulled ship built in Lorraine, Ohio, and launched on August 17, 1907. A marine publication described it as one of the most seaworthy vessels turned out by its shipyard. The Cypress sank on its second voyage.

On October 11, 1907, the ship was carrying iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo when a moderate gale developed off Deer Park in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. The storm was mild enough that only smaller vessels sought shelter. The sole survivor, second mate Charles G. Pits, reported that the ship developed a list to port that worsened throughout the afternoon. The Cypress capsized that evening. Pits reached shore after nearly seven hours in the water. The other 22 crew members died.

The wreck was found in August 2007 by members of the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society using side-scan sonar in about 460 feet of water. The hull was intact. Researchers identified a likely cause. The ship was equipped with Mulholland sliding hatch covers, a newer design that used a steel-on-steel seal. According to researchers, this type of hatch was prone to allowing water in unless special tarpaulins were fitted over the top. It is not clear whether those tarpaulins were in place.

Wave action likely forced small amounts of water through the hatches into the cargo hold. When water mixed with iron ore, it created a heavy, shifting slurry that would have sloshed to one side on each roll, adding weight to the list and drawing in more water. The crew would not have seen this happening. A passing steamer reported observing a reddish wake trailing the Cypress shortly before it went down, indicating iron ore was being discharged from the hull. After the disaster, maritime regulations were changed to require tarpaulined hatches on Lake Superior during certain times of year.

The Marquette and Bessemer Number Two was a 338-foot steel train ferry built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1905. It was designed to carry up to 30 loaded railroad cars across Lake Erie between Conneaut, Ohio, and Port Stanley, Ontario, a routine crossing of about five hours.

On December 7, 1909, the ferry departed Conneaut at 10:43 a.m. with 30 railroad cars, mostly loaded with coal, and about 37 people aboard. The ship sailed directly into a severe winter storm with winds reported at 75 mph. Various reports placed the sound of the ship’s distress whistle at different times between 1:00 and 5:00 a.m. the following morning.

The ship was never seen again. Three days later, a search tug found a lifeboat about 15 miles off Erie, Pennsylvania, with nine frozen bodies inside. None were dressed in warm clothing, which suggests the evacuation was rushed.

Attempts to locate the wreck have not succeeded. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes, with an average depth of about 62 feet. Despite multiple announced discoveries over the years, every one has turned out to be a different vessel. One theory holds that the wreck may have sunk into the thick muck at the bottom of the lake.

The ferry had a design vulnerability. It had no stern gate, leaving the open stern exposed so railroad cars could roll on and off. In a storm, large waves could flood the ship from behind. Captain Robert McCloud had reportedly raised this concern weeks before the loss and requested a stern gate be installed. The company planned to do the work during the winter layup, which began three weeks too late.

Researchers have also suggested that the loaded railroad cars may have broken loose and shifted during the storm, instantly adding thousands of tons of weight to one side. If that occurred, the ferry would have capsized quickly.

The L.R. Doty was a 291-foot wooden steamship built in West Bay City, Michigan, in 1893. It was constructed of white oak with steel arches embedded in the hull for added stability. On October 25, 1898, the Doty left South Chicago carrying 107,000 bushels of corn and towing a four-masted schooner called the Olive Jeanette.

By late afternoon, winds had reached 70 mph and waves reached 30 feet. At 5:00 p.m., the towline between the two ships snapped. The crew of the Olive Jeanette lost sight of the Doty almost immediately. The Jeanette survived the storm after several difficult days. None of the 70 crew members on the Doty survived.

The wreck of the Doty was located in 2010 by a group led by marine historian Brendon Baillod and charter captain Jitka Hanakova. The ship was found in 320 feet of water, upright and intact. The cargo of corn from 1898 was still in the hold, and the ship’s boilers were in place.

The most likely explanation, according to researchers, is that the rudder chain snapped while the ship was turning to assist the Olive Jeanette. Without steering, the Doty was exposed to the storm and went down after waves breached its wooden hatches. The wreck rests in the position of its final moments, with the cold, low-oxygen water slowing the normal breakdown of materials.

The Gunilda was a 195-foot steel-hulled luxury steam yacht built in Leith, Scotland, in 1897. It cost approximately $200,000 to build. In 1903, it was purchased by oil executive William L. Harkness of Cleveland, Ohio, and became the flagship of the New York Yacht Club.

In the summer of 1911, Harkness and his family were cruising along the north shore of Lake Superior and planned to enter Lake Nipigon. A local pilot offered to guide the yacht through the islands and shoals near Rossport, Ontario, for $15. Harkness refused the offer. Another local pilot asked for $25 plus train fare back, and that offer was also declined. American charts did not show shoals on the intended course, and Harkness ordered the ship to proceed without a pilot.

About five miles from Rossport, the Gunilda struck McGarvey Shoal. The impact drove the bow onto the rocks. No one was injured. Harkness arranged for a salvage tug, the James Whalen, to pull the yacht off the shoal. The tug captain advised bringing a second tug and barge for stability, but Harkness declined the additional expense. The Whalen pulled the Gunilda off the rocks, and once in open water, the yacht took on water through open portholes, doors, and hatches. It sank in about 270 feet of water. Everyone on board was rescued.

The wreck was rediscovered in 1967 by diver Chuck Zender. The Cousteau Society dived and filmed the wreck in 1980. They described the Gunilda as the best-preserved shipwreck of its kind in the world. The yacht sits upright on an even keel. Both masts remain standing, the superstructure is intact, and a piano is still in the parlor. Much of the paint, including gold leaf on the bow, remains in place.

The preservation is attributed to conditions in deep Lake Superior. The water temperature is near freezing year-round, with very low oxygen levels. Organisms that break down wood and other materials in ocean wrecks do not survive in this freshwater environment, and the cold slows corrosion.